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Abstract: Folk wisdom has it that various aromas are
sexually enticing but no data exists demonstrating actual
effects of specific odors on arousal. The
present study reports the effects of 30 different scents on
sexual arousal of 31 male volunteers by comparing their penile
blood flow, measured b brachial penile index, while wearing
scented masks and while wearing nonodorized, blank masks.
Odors found generally pleasant in previous surveys were selected
for this study. Each produced some increase in penile
blood flow; the combined odor of lavender and pumpkin pie
produced the greatest increase (40%). A multitude of
mechanisms may mediate these effects. A potential application
of odorants to increase penile blood flow in patients with
vasculogenic impotence deserves study. Odors that may
decrease penile blood flow have yet to be found for possible
use in treating sexual deviants.
Key Words: Odors, Sexual Response
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Introduction
Historically, certain smells have been considered
aphrodisiacs, a subject of much folklore and pseudoscience.
In the volcanic remnants of Pompeii, perfume jars were preserved
in the chambers designed for sexual relations. Ancient
Egyptians bathed with essential oils in preparation for assignations;
Sumarians seduced their women with perfumes. A relationship
between smell and sexual attraction is emphasized in traditional
Chinese rituals, and virtually all cultures have used perfume
in their marriage rites. In mythology, rose petals symbolized
scent, and the work "deflowering" describes the initial act
of sex. Farcical stock characters in the popular Italian
Commedia dell'Arte of the Renaissance wore long-nose masks
to symbolize their phallic endowment, a tradition that lingers
in the figure of Punch. Dramatic literature abounds
with sly references to nasal size as symbolic of phallic
size, as in the famous play Cyrano De Bergerac.
Psychoanalysis has made much of these associations.
Fliess, in his concept of the phallic nose, formally described
an underlying link between the nose and the phallus.(1)
Jungian psychology also connects odors and sex.
In the modern world the pervasive promoting and use of perfumes,
colognes and after-shaves as romantic enticements have produced
a multibillion dollar business.(2) And the popular arts
as well have seized on the theme linking olfaction and sex.
The movie Scent of a Woman portrays the importance of smell
and sexual attraction in our society, as does the recent novel
Perfumery.
The prominent connection between odors and sex among diverse
historical periods and cultures implies a high level of evolutionary
importance. Freud (3) suggested that odors are such
strong inducers of sexual feelings that repression of smell
sensations is necessary to civilization.
Anatomy bears out the link between smells and sex: the area
of the brain through which we experience smells, the olfactory
lobe, is part of the limbic system, the emotional brain (4),
the area through which sexual thoughts and desires are derived.
(5) Brill (6) suggests that people kiss to get their
noses close together, so that they can smell each other (the
Eskimo kiss). Or possibly they kiss to get their mouths
together so they can taste each other since most of what we
call taste is dependent upon olfaction.(7)
In discussing odors and sex we must begin with the birds and
the bees. Classically, bees, moths, and other insects
are known to release pheromones, aerosolized odorants that
attract the opposite sex.(8) A female moth can release a pheromone
into the air that attracts a male s far as a mile away, enhancing
her changes of procreation. Similarly, pheromones exist
throughout the animal kingdom in insect, subhuman primate,
and primate genera (9) to the evolutionary benefit of the
species. Whether human pheromones exist is unclear,
but theoretic grounds support their presence, since structures
that exist throughout the animal kingdom seem likely to be
present in humans as well. Inside the human brain, near
the top of the nose is an anatomical feature that gives us
reason to believe that human pheromones exist: the vomeronasal
organ. (10) Its function is unknown, but in subhuman primates,
this is the area where pheromones act to increase the chance
of procreation. This is where human vomeropherins bind.
(11) (12)
When we exercise, we sweat through endocrine glands. (13)
But when we are embarrassed or sexually excited, we sweat
through apocrine glands that release high-density steroids
(14) under the arms and around the genitalia; their role is
unknown. In subhuman primates, the same apocrine glands
release pheromones. (14) If these glands function similarly
in humans, this might explain why when a woman raises her
arms to her head exposing her axillae, her gesture is considered
sexually provocative; "this charming grotto is full on intriguing
surprises." (13)
Physiologic evidence of the importance of odors in sexual
excitation is two-fold: First, during sexual excitation, engorgement
of the nose induces development of eddy currents (like small
tornadoes). Then, since less of the air goes directly
to the lungs (15), more pheromones or sexual attractants can
reach the olfactory epithelium (16) and smell is more acute.
Breathing from the mouth during sexual excitation is evidence
of nasal engorgement and maximizes contact with stimulants
and pheromones. Second, olfactory ability in women,
generally better than that of men (16-19) is at its peak during
ovulation, perhaps to detect any pheromones present.
Increased olfactory ability at this time may explain why periovulatory
women tend to have more sexual experiences. Possibly
increased olfactory stimulation prompts an increase in sexual
activity. (20)
Clinical observation supports the existence of pheromones
in humans, as manifested by college roommate effect (21-22).
Women who move into all-women's dormitory halls have, by mid-term,
synchronized their ovulating cycles with the other women in
the hall. This indicates that a pheromone released by
one woman may entrain the others in a pattern of dominance.
The same phenomenon exists in small offices where women work
together.
As further evidence of pheromones' existence, male college
students were asked to rate pictures of women while wearing
masks either with no odor or with a postulated female pheromone
(androsterone). The men with postulated female pheromone
in their masks described the women as appearing friendlier
and prettier than did those wearing unodorized masks (23).
During a study in England, a possible male pheromone was placed
beneath certain desks in a classroom; then pictures were taken
continually to monitor where students sat. Female students
tended to sit near the desks where the postulated male pheromone
was placed (24). Asked why they sat there, the girls
said "it just seemed like the right place to sit."
Pheromones may be not only sexual attractants, but also territorial
markers, e.g., a dog establishes dominance in his yard by
urinating there (25). In a study of a men's college
dormitory room, a postulated male pheromone was placed beneath
specific toilet stalls which were then monitored (24).
Men tended to avoid the stalls where the postulated male pheromone
was placed, which seems suggestive that the scent had the
effect of a territorial marker.
These experiments, of course, do not prove human pheromones
exist. Yet perfume companies market their interpretations
of pheromones, often containing musk, a pheromone of the male
musk deer. Marilyn Miglan named a perfume "Pheromone,"
however its scent is a floral mixture (26).
Various cultures favor various odors. In the U.S., women
cut their axillary hair because this bodily smell is considered
unclean. But in Eastern Europe, the smell is considered
sexually provocative, and the axillary follicles are left
virginal. Alex Comfort calls it the woman's bouquet
(27).
Medical evidence links smell and sexual response. In
one study, over 17 percent of patients with olfactory deficits
had developed a sexual dysfunction (28).
A relationship undoubtedly exists between the olfactory and
sexual functions; its mechanism, however, remains to be discovered.
In the present experiment, we investigate the impact of ambient
olfactory stimuli upon sexual response in the human male.
Method
Participants
Subjects literate in English were recruited through
solicitation on classic rock radio broadcasts. Thirty-one
males, aged 18 to 6 years volunteered.
Measures
All subjects underwent olfactory testing with
the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT),
a 40 item, forced choice, scratch and sniff odor identification
test (29) and the Chicago Smell Test, a three odorant detection
and identification test (30-32). They were queried as
to sexual preference, sexual practices, and odor hedonics.
During the experiment, subjects' sexual arousal was determined
using the brachial penile index (33) with the Floscope Ultra
Pneumoplethymosgraph following manufacturer's protocol (34).
With this instrument, both penile and brachial blood pressures
were measured and their ratio calculated, hence controlling
for systemic effects. This allowed specific noninvasive
assessment of penile blood flow.
Procedure
Twenty-four different odorants were chosen for
this study based on their generally positive hedonics in previous
surveys. In addition, 6 combinations of 2 of the most
well-liked of these were chosen. The effects of the
30 odors on penile blood flow were assessed by comparing a
subject's brachial penile index while wearing an odorized
mask to his average index while wearing an unodorized blank
mask. This was done for each subject for each odor.
Subjects underwent assessment as follows: after being attached
to the plethysmograph, three minutes were allowed for acclimation,
then a blank control mask was applied for one minute and brachial
penile index recorded. The blank mask was then removed
and an odorized mask applied. Thus 30 odorized masks
were randomly applied in double-blind fashion, with a three
minute hiatus between masks to prevent habituation to the
odors. Each mask was worn for one minute and brachial
penile index recorded. Finally, an additional blank
mask was applied for one minute and brachial penile index
again recorded..
|
Statistical Analysis
Statistical significance is defined by a p
value <=0.05. Data analysis includes these nonparametric
tests: Signed Rank test, Wilcoxan Rank Sum test, and Spearman's
Rank correlation coefficient (35-36).
Results
Participants' Characteristics
All subjects lived in Chicago or suburbs.
Most (77%) were single and their mean age was 30 years, median
29 years with a range of 18 to 64 years. Most (87%)
were heterosexual, had a regular sex partner (74%), had intercourse
four times in the 30-day period just prior to the experiment
and considered their sex lives fairly satisfactory (Table
1).
To assess their physiologic erectile function, subjects were
asked to rate the frequency of their morning erections on
a scale of 1 (absent) to 5 (every morning). Their median
response was 3 (Table 1). Most (84%) stated that they
had never experienced an odor-induced erection (Table 1).
Subjects' olfactory characteristics are shown on Table II.
UPSIT scores were graded based on published norms for age
and sex. Given these, 52% of subjects scores were normal
and 48% were microsmic, i.e., hyposmic (deficient in odor
sensitivity) or anosmic (without a sense of smell).
Over half the subjects (55%) had experienced odor-evoked recall,
a phenomenon wherein an aroma triggers memories and associated
feelings (37). More than half (61%) were nonsmokers.
Most (71%) used cologne, and of those who had a regular sex
partner, 83% of the partners used scent.
Effects of Odors on Penile Blood Flow
Each of the 30 odors produced an increase in penile
blood flow (Table III). The combined odor of lavender
and pumpkin pie had the greatest effect, increasing median
penile-blood flow by 40%. Second in effectiveness was
the combination of black licorice and doughnut, which increased
the median penile-blood flow 31.5%. The combined odors
of pumpkin pie and doughnut was third, with a 20% increase.
Least stimulating was cranberry, which increased penile blood
flow by 2%. None of the odors reduced penile-blood flow.
Men with below normal olfaction did not differ significantly
from those with normal olfaction, nor did smokers differ significantly
from nonsmokers. However, among subjects with normal
olfactory ability, several correlations are significant: higher
brachial penile indices correlate with greater age and with
greater responses to the odor of vanilla (p=0.05);
self-assessed level of sexual satisfaction correlates
with greater responses to the odor of strawberry (p=0.05);
and frequency of sexual intercourse correlates with greater
responses to the odors of lavender (p=0.03), oriental
spice (p=0.02) and cola (p=0.03).
Discussion
We hypothesized that hedonically positive odors,
since they have other behavioral effects (38-40), would increase
penile blood flow. Our data support this hypothesis.
A multitude of mechanisms exist by which this might occur.
The odors could induce a Pavlovian conditioned response reminding
subjects of their sexual partners or their favorite foods
(41). Among persons raised in the United States, odors
of baked goods are most apt to induce a state called olfactory-evoked
recall (37). Possibly, odors in the current study evoked
a nostalgic recall with an associated positive mood state
that affected penile blood flow (38-40). Or the odors
may simply be relaxing. In others studies, lavender,
which increased alpha waves posteriorly, an effect associated
with a relaxed state (42-43). In a condition of reduced
anxiety, inhibitions may be removed and thus penile blood
flow increased.
It has been shown that the odor of jasmine increases beta
waves frontally, which is associated with alertness (42).
Possibly odors may awaken the reticular activating system,
making subjects more alert to any sexual cues, thus increasing
penile blood flow.
Another possibility, odors may act neurophysiologically.
MacLean (5) demonstrated that stimulation of the septal nucleus
in the squirrel monkey induces erection. A direct pathway
connects the olfactory bulb to the septal nucleus (44), hence,
it seems anatomically correct that odor could impact upon
the septal nucleus to induce erection with increased penile
blood flow. This seems a strong possibility in our study,
since the one subject who slept through the entire experiment
showed the greatest increase in penile-blood flow in response
to the combined odors of lavender and pumpkin pie.
We suspect a direct physiologic mechanism, yet we cannot rule
out a possible impact of odors upon the dreams of the subject
who slept through the experiment, perhaps with his dream content
influencing penile blood flow.
Possibly odors can increase aggression, through septal nucleus
stimulation. Increased penile-blood flow may be a measure
of a "neighborhood effect" of induced aggression rather than
direct sexual excitation (45).
Nor can we rule out a generalized parasympathetic effect,
increasing penile blood flow rather than specific sexual excitation
(46). As much as possible, we controlled for this by
measuring brachial blood pressure coincident with penile blood
flow.
The specific odors that affected penile blood flow in our
experiment were primarily food odors. More directly,
Rediwhip (c) has been used perigenitally, again indicating
a strong relationship between sex, food and smell. Does
this support the axiom that the way to a man's heart (and
sexual affection) is through his stomach? An evolutionary
hypothesis explains why this may be so. After a successful
hunt, humans in primitive tribes congregated around the food
(47). There, perhaps they had most opportuni-
ties to procreate. An increase in penile-blood flow
in response to food odors, then would be an advantage.
A recent finding about the Bonobos-that when they found a
plentiful food source they stopped to have sex before they
ate, perhaps to reduce quarreling over food-provides another
explanation for the association between food and sex (48).
Humans can detect approximately 10,000 odors (8). Studies
indicate that many of them affect behavior, i.e., certain
floral smells can enhance learning (49) and buying behavior
(50); green apple odor may ease claustrophobic feelings (51),
barbecue smoke may induce a flight response (51) and inhaling
certain food odors may help effect weight loss (52).
Odors other than those examined in this study could possibly
have a greater effect on penile-blood flow.
Olfactory sensation can influence the sexual reflex arc; as
mentioned, human pheromones, which trigger sexual response
through direct olfactory-limbic interconnections, are speculative
(53-55). Penile erection, the measure of male sexual
arousal (56) is a manifestation of outflow from the septal
nuclei within the limbic system, and end organ for olfactory
fibers (57). As a function of of the autonomic nervous
system (58), penile engorgement is controlled by arterial
flow through the pudendal artery and the smaller arteries
to the penis. The first physical sign of sexual excitation
is a change in penile-blood flow. Blood flow to the
penis increases with sexual excitement and decreases with
sexual inhibition (59).
We certainly cannot consider the odors in our experiment to
be human pheromones, therefore we believe they acted through
other pathways than do pheromones, which are thought to cause
an endocrinologic effect upon the brain. A postulated
pheromone, androstenol, a high-density steroid, is said to
act very slowly on the endocrine system (60). Odors
that affect penile-blood flow act immediately on the brain
or have an immediate psychological effect, unlike the postulated
pheromones.
These preliminary data suggest potential uses of odors as
a treatment modality. Impotence, in 10-15% of cases,
is organic, the most common cause being vaculogenic, usually
due to diabetes (57-61). Current investigations should
determine whether noninvasive treatment with odors can enhance
penile blood flow in diabetes.
Although we found no odor to reduce penile blood flow, we
hypothesized that such an odor might be found, possibly a
trigeminal stimulant with a very negatively hedonic odor.
Such an odor might be utilized to decrease penile blood flow
in sex offenders, such as pedophiles, as part of their deconditioning
or aversion training.
While we studied only male subjects, undoubtedly analogous
odors might be found to affect women. Parallel studies
of vaginal blood flow are being undertaken.
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|
|
Table I
Se
| |
No.
|
%
|
|
Marital Status
|
|
|
|
|
24
|
77.4
|
|
|
5
|
16.1
|
|
|
2
|
6.5
|
|
Heterosexual
|
27
|
87.1
|
|
Homosexual
|
4
|
12.9
|
|
Had a regular sex partner
|
23
|
74.2
|
|
Had more than one partner
|
2
|
6.5
|
|
30-Day sexual history:
|
|
|
|
|
0
|
0
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
6
|
19.3
|
|
|
2
|
6.5
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2
|
6.5
|
|
|
7
|
22.6
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1
|
3.2
|
|
|
2
|
6.5
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
26
|
83.9
|
|
|
5
|
16.1
|
xual Characteristics of 31 Male Subjects
|
Table II
Smell Characteristics
|
All Subjects ( n = 31 )
|
No.
|
%
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
16
|
51.6
|
|
|
15
|
48.4
|
|
|
17
|
54.8
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19
|
61.3
|
|
|
12
|
38.7
|
|
|
3
|
9.7
|
|
|
9
|
29.0
|
|
|
22
|
71.0
|
|
Subjects with a regular partner ( n = 23 )
|
|
|
|
|
19
|
2.6
|
| |
|
|
|
| |
|
|
Table III
Increases in Penile Blood Flow Produced by Various Odors
on 31 Subjects
| |
Median % Increase
|
|
Lavender and pumpkin pie
|
40.0
|
|
Doughnut and black licorice
|
31.5
|
|
Pumpkin pie and doughnut
|
20.0
|
|
Orange
|
19.5
|
|
Lavender and doughnut
|
18.0
|
|
Black licorice and cola
|
13.0
|
|
Black licorice
|
13.0
|
|
Doughnut and cola
|
12.5
|
|
Lily of the valley
|
11.0
|
|
Buttered popcorn
|
9.0
|
|
Vanilla
|
9.0
|
|
Pumpkin pie
|
8.5
|
|
Lavender
|
8.0
|
|
Musk
|
7.5
|
|
Cola
|
7.0
|
|
Doughnut
|
7.0
|
|
Peppermint
|
6.0
|
|
Cheese pizza
|
5.0
|
|
Roasting meat
|
5.0
|
|
Parsley
|
4.5
|
|
Cinnamon buns
|
4.0
|
|
Green apple
|
3.8
|
|
Rose
|
3.5
|
|
Strawberry
|
3.5
|
|
Oriental spices
|
3.5
|
|
Baby powder
|
3.3
|
|
Floral
|
3.0
|
|
Chocolate
|
2.8
|
|
Pink grapefruit
|
2.5
|
|
Cranberry
|
2.0
|
|
|
